‘Describe and Evaluate Carl Jung’s Theory Concerning Personality Types Essay

Presentation In this exposition I expect to exhibit a comprehension of Jung’s character types by portraying and assessing his hypothesis and to show how they may valuable in helping an advisor to decide remedial objectives. I will likewise take a gander at a portion of the reactions leveled at Jung’s hypothesis. Carl Gustav Jung, (26 July 1875 †6 June 1961), was a Swiss clinician and specialist, and the originator of systematic brain research. His dad was a Pastor, and he had a detached adolescence, getting contemplative, it appears he had a schizoid character. In spite of the fact that Freud was associated with scientific brain research and worked with patients with insane depressions; Jung, in any case, worked with crazy patients in medical clinic. He was struck by the all inclusive images (or Archetypes) in their daydreams and fantasies (ref. Dennis Brown and Jonathan Redder (1989) p. 107). His work and impact broadens route past getting character, and he is viewed as probably the best mastermind to have estimated about existence and how individuals identify with it. Carl Jung was among numerous incredible character scholars who drew motivation and direction from the old models like crystal gazing and the Four Temperaments. For a long time there has been a ‘typology’ to attempt to sort individual’s perspectives and conduct, e. g. Soothsaying. Oriental soothsayers concocted the most established type of typology; accepting is that there is a character attribute that is pertinent to each sign and that a person’s character/character can be characterized as far as the components †fire water air and earth. Those enduring an onslaught had a red hot nature and relating personality and destiny, and so on. The antiquated Greeks had confidence in the ‘four temperaments’/‘four humours’, which can be followed back to Ancient Greek medication and theory (400BC), particularly in crafted by Hippocrates †the ‘Father of Medicine’) and in Plato’s thoughts regarding character and character. It was accepted that so as to look after wellbeing, individuals required an even parity of the four body liquids: blood, mucus, yellow bile, and dark bile. These four body liquids were connected to specific organs and sicknesses and furthermore spoke to the ‘Four Temperaments’ or ‘Four Humours’ of character. The Greek doctor Galen (AD 130-200) later presented the part of four fundamental demeanors mirroring the humors: the cheerful, light sort; the indifferent, lazy sort; the peevish, hotheaded sort; and the melancholic, disheartened sort. Galen additionally grouped medications as far as their alleged impacts on the four humors. He in this manner made a methodical guide or choosing drugs, which albeit deductively erroneous were the establishment stone of rewarding mental and mental ailments. Carl Jung moved toward character and ‘psychological types’ (likewise alluded to as Jung’s mental sorts) from a point of view of clinical therapy. He was one of only a handful not many clinicians in the twentieth century to keep up that advancement reaches out past youth and youthfulness through midlife and into mature age. He concentrated on setting up and building up a connection among cognizant and oblivious procedures. Jung accepted that Page 2 there was an exchange between the cognizant and oblivious and without it the oblivious procedures can debilitate and even imperil the character and this is found in one of his focal ideas of individuation. He accepted that individuation is a long lasting procedure of self-awareness that includes setting up an association between the inner self and oneself, which could be brought to its most noteworthy acknowledgment whether worked with and the oblivious was faced. (Stevens 1999) Jung, similar to Freud, alluded to the self image while portraying the more cognizant part of character. Not at all like Freud he didn't look to limit the oblivious side of the character, however rather gave it equivalent status, complimentary to that of the cognizant. He alluded to the incorporated character as Self; the focal point of the complete mind, including both the cognizant and the oblivious. The Self incorporates the entirety of a person’s characteristics and possibilities whether they become evident at a specific phase of life. The objective of treatment is to manage the customer to turn into an entire an individual as close to home conditions will permit. It was out of Jung’s encounter with the oblivious, both in himself and in his patients, that he gradually expounded his brain science. In his 1921 work, ‘Personality Types’, Jung analyzed his four capacities (as demonstrated as follows) of character to the four focuses on a compass. While an individual faces one bearing, the person in question despite everything utilizes different focuses as a guide. The vast majority keep one capacity as the prevailing one albeit a few people may create two over a lifetime. It is just the individual who accomplishes self-acknowledgment that has totally built up every one of the four capacities. His book additionally went about as the compass by which Jung attempted to see how he contrasted from Freud and Adler, however more critically, could start to outline the inside universe of individuals. Jung’s Four Psychological Functions are as per the following: Rational Functions ?Thinking (procedure of intellectual idea) ?Feeling (capacity of emotional judgment or valuation) empowering dynamic Irrational Functions ?Sensation (recognition utilizing the physical sense organs ?Intuition (receptivity to oblivious substance) giving the data on which to make decisions. Jung held a profound energy about imaginative life and looked at otherworldliness as a focal piece of the human excursion. There is an entire writing relating Jungian brain science and otherworldliness, fundamentally from a Christian point of view. This writing incorporates compositions by Kelsey (1974,1982) and by Sanford (1968, 1981). Caprio and Hedberg’s (1986) Coming Home: A Handbook for Exploring the Sanctuary Within is a handy guide for otherworldly work in the Christian convention. It contains striking individual stories, great delineations, and valuable activities. (Frager and Fadiman 2005) Jung’s portrayal of character expresses that so as to Page 3 distinguish a mental kind it is important to decide if an individual is situated essentially toward his inward world (introspection) or toward outside the real world (extraversion), known as the principal disposition of the person to underline its significance. Jung’s eight character types are as per the following: ?Extroverted Thinking †Jung hypothesized that individuals comprehend the world through a blend of solid thoughts and conceptual ones, yet the theoretical ideas are ones passed down from others. Outgoing masterminds are frequently discovered working in the examination sciences and arithmetic. †¢Introverted Thinking †These people decipher upgrades in the earth through an emotional and innovative way. The translations are educated by inside information and comprehension. Rationalists and hypothetical researchers are regularly independent reasoning focused individuals. †¢Extroverted Feeling †These individuals judge the estimation of things dependent on target truth. Agreeable in social circumstances, they structure their sentiments dependent on socially acknowledged qualities and lion's share convictions. They are regularly discovered working in business and governmental issues. †¢Introverted Feeling †These individuals make decisions dependent on abstract thoughts and on inside built up convictions. Frequently they disregard winning perspectives and oppose accepted practices of reasoning. Withdrawn inclination individuals flourish in professions as craftsmanship pundits. †¢Extroverted Sensing †These individuals see the world as it truly exists. Their observations are not shaded by any previous convictions. Occupations that require target survey, similar to wine testers and editors, are best filled by outgoing detecting individuals. †¢Introverted Sensing †These people decipher the world through the viewpoint of emotional mentalities and once in a while observe something for just what it is. They comprehend nature by giving it importance dependent on inner reflection. Thoughtful detecting individuals frequently go to different expressions, including representation painting and old style music. †¢Extroverted Intuitive †These individuals like to comprehend the implications of things through subconsciously saw target truth instead of approaching tactile data. They depend on hunches and frequently ignore what they see straightforwardly from their faculties. Creators that happen upon their innovation by means of a stroke of understanding and some strict reformers are portrayed by the extraverted natural sort. †¢Introverted Intuitive †These people, Jung thought, are significantly affected by their inside inspirations despite the fact that they don't totally get them. They discover importance through oblivious, emotional thoughts regarding the world. Independent natural individuals involve a critical bit of spiritualists, strange specialists, and strict fan. They are spiritualist visionaries, worried about conceivable outcomes instead of what is as of now present. Only here and there comprehended by others. Quell detecting. Jung depicted himself as a withdrawn intuitor. Contemplative people will be individuals who favor their inner universe of considerations, emotions, dreams, dreams, etc, while social butterflies lean toward the outer universe of things and individuals and exercises. Page 4 Today the words have gotten mistaken for thoughts like timidity and friendliness, somewhat on the grounds that contemplative people will in general be modest and outgoing people will in general be agreeable. In any case, Jung proposed for them to allude more to whether you (â€Å"ego†) all the more frequently looked toward the persona and external reality, or toward the aggregate oblivious and its paradigms. In that sense, the loner is fairly more full grown than the outgoing person. Our way of life, obviously, values the outgoing person significantly more. Jung cautioned that we as a whole will in general worth

Operations Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Tasks Strategy - Case Study Example Truth be told, experimental proof demonstrates us that acknowledged procedure will in general be around 10-30 percent of expected system. What truly decides procedure is the examples of choices that rise up out of individual supervisors adjusting to changing outer conditions and the manners by which the planned technique was deciphered. What is Apple's crucial system today' Apple's strategic to convey an exceptionally inventive and better arrangement than a client's individualized computing needs. Apple's current day serious system is an arrival to separation. Key components to this methodology are an accentuation on configuration, administration, marking through promoting, and quality. Drivers expected to achieve these goals are through the association's interesting showcasing capacities, designing aptitudes, imagination, and R& D (Apple Computer, 2005). Despite the fact that the organization has exceeded expectations in conveyance and request preparing, it despite everything presently can't seem to demonstrate its operational productivity. In that lies Apple's vital shortcoming. Previously, Apple has neglected to accommodate the additional expense of separation with operational efficiencies underway and dissemination. Apple has likewise indicated skills in building brand notoriety and creating buzz for its items. Their showcasing efforts have been effective and stay a worth included movement. Monetarily, the organization stays fluid with significant money holds and isn't profoundly utilized owing debtors (Apple Financial, 2006). Apple's separation technique is exceptionally lined up with the changing elements of the business. Right off the bat, Apple possesses the main suitable option in contrast to a Wintel machine. All other significant PC producers are just somewhat separated in light of the fact that they are compelled to fit in with the Wintel guidelines of an Intel chip and Microsoft working framework. They are constrained to separating themselves dependent on availability, administration, and promoting. Apple has effectively separated itself as the main feasible option in contrast to the PC standard. The two significant powers that have influenced piece of the overall industry misfortune are the misguided judgment that Apple PCs are contrary with accessible programming for Wintel machines and getting one will bring about misfortunes in usefulness. This can be overwhelmed with forceful advertising efforts in which Apple has shown esteem included abilities. The subsequent main consideration adding to Apple misfortune in piece of the overall industry is the unequaled value disintegration from the PC advertise. Apple has neglected to limit the hole in light of its operational wasteful aspects. In the event that Apple can limit this value hole and conquer the negative programming observation, it will without a doubt recapture piece of the overall industry (Bateman - Snell 2004). Inside Analysis Crucial, Range Objectives, Current Strategy, and Performance Between the long periods of 1980 and 2001, Apple slid along a fierce slant of declining piece of the pie and benefit disintegration where it lost its initiative position and now slacks as a market devotee with a simple 3% all out piece of the pie. Apple's powerlessness to guard its piece of the pie and initiative status can be straightforwardly ascribed to one general, yet winning driver. All through this passing residency, Apple came up short on a reasonable crucial serious technique that drove the worth making exercises of the firm (FEI 2006). Apple started with the strategic change the world through innovation. More explicitly, the organization looked for

All The Worlds A Stage

All The World’s A Stage Wednesday the Eleventh: Instead of growing up with boy bands and popular songs on the radio, my main musical intake stemmed from my dad’s 70s rock band CDs and video game/TV/movie soundtracks. In high school, I became friends with a bunch of theatre kids and was thrown into their world as a set designer for my sophomore fall production of The Crucible, and my eyes (ears?) were opened to the glory of musical theatre. It’s second nature now to check local theatres, in this case Broadway in Boston, get excited for upcoming shows, and then promptly feel the echoing hollowness of my pockets/wallet/bank account. #collegestudentproblems But then I learned about student rush. It operates a bit differently based on the popularity of the show, but the basic principle is the same. You show up 2-3 hours before the house opens, and the box office has a limited number of as-yet-unclaimed tickets that you can buy for $20-40, let’s say, instead of $80-100. First-come, first-served, and usually they’re pretty good seats. My friend Jamal E. ’13 and I had tossed around the idea of trying to get student rush tickets for Wicked (the untold story of the witches of Oz) before it closed. On a whim of impulsiveness and a touch of procrastination, we decided to go for it on Wednesday. Because the show is so popular, though, you enter your name in a lottery from 5-5:30pm and a few winners are drawn. After seeing a crowd of 70+ people toss their names (and hopes and dreams in the form of little paper balls) into this huge black cauldron, we were feeling pretty unlucky. It was as though the universe was telling us to trek back to campus and pset for the rest of the night, as we should’ve in the first place. But then they called my name. And pronounced it correctly. And we may or may not have paused for a moment, then fist-pumped and yelled “YES!!!” like the mature adults we are, as everyone else stared in shock/mild jealousy/confusion at the outburst They gave me a snazzy button, we got seats in row Câ€"so close to the stage that we could see the details on the costumes, the conductor singing along with everyone on stage, and the actors’ expressionsâ€"and geeked out about Wicked all night. Here’s the soundtrack if anyone is interested. Thursday the Twelfth: My friend Katie W. ’16 stage-managed the MIT Musical Theater Guild’s production of Avenue Q, so of course I had to go see it and make funny faces at her in the booth and show my love. (That, and the fact that I try and go to every MIT show that I’m not directly involved in. Yay theatre!) I won’t write a comprehensive summary because The Tech (MIT’s newspaper) already had a pretty good review, and you can always turn to the internet for the soundtrack or a plot summary. Monday the Sixteenth and Thursday the Nineteenth: With a combination of 4 classes, a UROP, and fencing already on my plate, I figured I should probably stay away from major tech theatre positions this semester… But I’m still on the Dramashop exec mailing list, and have been getting updates about the Fall One-Acts. Including the time/date of the first production meeting. Basically, production meetings allow designers, producers, stage managers, and directors to meet and talk about how the show is coming together. And this one involved organizing rehearsal schedules for each of the 3 plays, figuring out when we can move into Kresge Little Theater (the final performance space), and finding somebody to be head stage manager and call the show. Which I may have signed up to do. (Hello again, ghost light.) I’m also on the tech-ninjas mailing list for the Shakespeare Ensemble’s production of Hamlet. And they needed an emergency stage manager, so I may have stepped in for an evening. Their rehearsals are currently table reads, which involves actors being brilliant and goofy and working out lines sans movement. This production cast a split-personality Hamlet (literally, two brilliant actors each performing half of the role) and it’s bound to be a good show. For me, it’s wonderful how easy it is to become involved in MIT theatre without even thinking about auditioning. To be able to hang out with like-minded creative people in an “institvtion” known for its technicality. So if you’re looking for ways to explore sound or stage lighting cues, an artistic hankering for set painting, or a desire to keep actors somewhat on track, maybe reply to one of those email blasts or poster advertisements (this goes for high school too!). And try something new :)

Summary of Medieval and Renaissance Criticism - 1505 Words

Summary of Medieval and Renaissance Criticism Submitted by R. Zothanmawia V Semester BA R/no: 1101BA005 MEDIEVAL CRITICISM The period between the Classical Age and the Renaissance is vaguely named the Middle Age or the Medieval Age. In England, this period spans eight centuries and historians place it from the year of composition of Beowulf in 725 AD to 1474 AD when Caxton published the first book ever printed. The only standard work that dealt with Medieval Criticism is English Literary Criticism: The Medieval Phase by J.W.H Atkins published in 1952. One major development in this age is the adoption of Christianity as the religion of the Mediterranean region. Roman Catholicism prevailed in Western Europe. Classical elements were†¦show more content†¦He set an example in composing Divina Commedia in Italian, thus establishing spoken dialect for use in serious epic poetry. According to him, secular poetry also had hierarchy of four levels of meanings corresponding to the four levels of scriptural exegesis – the literal, the allegorical, moral and spiritual. He mainta ined that it was essential for a practicing critic to analyse and understand the literal sense first before he moved on to more appealing and edifying senses of higher levels of symbolic or esoteric meaning. LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE RENAISSANCE The term ‘Renaissance’ is of Italian origin meaning ‘rebirth’ or ‘reawakening’. It stands for the historical rebirth of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. The movement initially started in Italy and later spread to France, Germany, England and other European countries. There are two views regarding the Renaissance movement – One view is that the Europeans believed they have discovered the greatness and superiority of the ancient Greek and Roman culture after the dark Middle Age. The other view is that the Renaissance was not an abrupt movement, but had its roots established even during the medieval times and the movement was one of gradual progression. There was a revival in the study of arts and literature, sparked by an interest in Greek and Roman literature of the Classical Age. The classics were reinterpreted by Italian men of letters. The widening of the horizon of knowledge wasShow MoreRelated George Gemistos Plethon on God: Aristotle vs Plato Essay4387 Words   |  18 Pagesa pagan. I argue that Plethon takes the position he does because his interpretation of the Platonic God better fits his own neo-pagan theological conceptions. Part of the evidence for this is supplied by the first English translation of Plethons Summary of the Doctrines of Zoroaster and Plato. I. Background (3) George Gemistos, who called himself Plethon, (1355?-1452) lived during the last years of the Byzantine empire. 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Battle of Coochs Bridge in the American Revolution

In A long way gone by Ishmael Beah Free Essays

In A long way gone, by Ishmael Beah the main character ishmael struggles to good in a society that demands evil. As ishamel feels he is doing good, the lines of good and evil become extreamly blured. During Ishmael first battle, he fought angirly to avenge the dead that the R. We will write a custom essay sample on In A long way gone by Ishmael Beah or any similar topic only for you Order Now U. F killing mercelsey as it shows in text â€Å"Every time I stopped shooting to change magazines and saw my lifeless friend, I angirly pointed my gun into the swamp and killed more people†(119). Later in the text ishmael is no longer guided by revenge nor fairness. He starts to kill without any concious what so ever, as shown when ishmael Is not protected, and is willing to protect himself by standing up for his country and fighting for rights. â€Å" Killing those they had already severly wonded†(122). In this quote it shows how ishmael is doing extra work and taking his anger out on his enemies,that where doing harsh actions to ishmaels people. As ismael becomes a full cold blooded solider he seemingly forgets the reasons he fought for the R. U. F after U. N. I.  C. E. F takes ishmael and some of his comrades, they begin to hate the thing they fought for. In the text: â€Å"They have lost every that makes them human. They dont deserve to live, that is why we must kill every single on of them†(108). To anaylze this quote, ishmael points out that the rebels dont deserve to live due to what the rebels where doing to innocent people. According to ishmael he wants to kill all of them for all of the things they where doing to his people, and show them that he has power. How to cite In A long way gone by Ishmael Beah, Essay examples

Lady Macbeth Essay Research Paper Discuss whether free essay sample

Lady Macbeth Essay, Research Paper Discuss whether or non you feel sympathy for Lady Macbeth There are certain facets of Lady Macbeth s character that suggests she is good and hence her ruin additions my understanding for her by the terminal of act 5. But I would besides reason that she entailed evil to fuel her kiping aspiration that would do her Nemesis, her mental prostration, to the full justified. Lady Macbeth s function as a back uping married woman at the start of the drama exceeds the responsibilities of a normal married woman. She is the Eve to Macbeth s Adam and is tempted. Although Macbeth intimations at the thought of taking the Crown in his missive place, it is Lady Macbeth s ruthless finding to do him king that persuaded him to slay Duncan. Did she make this in the involvements of Macbeth or was it to carry through her ain aspiration? I would reason that it was to carry through her ain aspiration because she decided directly off that slaying was the best option to take without any respect to guilt, in this position I have no understanding for Lady Macbeth because it is a mark of her interior evilness. We will write a custom essay sample on Lady Macbeth Essay Research Paper Discuss whether or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page To perpetrate the slaying of King Duncan Lady Macbeth calls upon the liquors that tend on mortal ideas. She evokes evil to perpetrate the title and loses her individuality ; I would so reason that if she has lost her individuality so she has lost her psyche and that, in my sentiment, makes her a monster. This is illustrated by her willingness to dart the encephalons out of her babe, if she had one. The loss of her feminine qualities exemplifies her cognition of the effects of killing Duncan, this is demonstrated when she asks the acute knife see non the lesion it makes. This reveals her hope that she will non experience any guilt after the slaying and she naively believes that a small H2O clears us of this title ; these illustrations show that Lady Macbeth knew the workss she was traveling to perpetrate were evil and hence sustains my unsympathetic feelings for her. Although I have expressed unsympathetic positions about Lady Macbeth, I do experience that a certain sum of understanding arises from Act 5 Scene 1, which tends to conceal her old evil workss. Lady Macbeth has non been seen by the audience for some clip, this is because Macbeth has shut her out of his life and she has become stray and lonely. Lady Macbeth s mental prostration is caused by her recognition of her portion of guilt and is expressed by images of Duncan s blood, will these custodies ne er be clean? This is besides a contrast to her belief that H2O cleanses the scruples of any guilt. Lady Macbeth s mental prostration reinforces the thought of Scotland being diseased under Macbeth s reign and because he was non put their by Godhead right he can non bring around her. Lady Macbeth s function as a back uping married woman resurfaces once more in scene 5. She is now afraid of the dark, which is in contrasts to her earlier wants for darkness to hide the slaying. Lady Macbeth is haunted by dreams, like Macbeth ( O full of Scorpios is in my head ) , and sleep walks ; this echoes my last sentence in that she is now taking on the injury and guilt from her hubby. This reveals Lady Macbeth s compassion and love for her hubby and this, in my sentiment, makes her a good married woman. I would reason that her feelings of guilt shows that halting up the transition to remorse has non worked and the goodness inside Lady Macbeth has prevailed, that is why she has a guilty scruples. Despite her self-destruction she has shown that good ever overcomes evil, and possibly Lady Macbeth is a metaphor for the whole drama in general that good ever prevails in one signifier or another. That striking metaphor compels me to sympathize with Lady Macbeth s ruin because, like Macbeth, she could hold been a good, honest swayer. From the grounds I have given about the two sides of Lady Macbeth that influences my determination, I am rooted in a sympathetic paradox between Lady Macbeth s mental ruin, which increases my understanding for her, and her evil aspiration, which makes me experience unsympathetic towards her. My feelings for and against Lady Macbeth organize an equilibrium of understanding for Lady Macbeth

Free Essays on Airplanes Saftey

Airport management â€Å"McCarran Airport† The McCarran International airport is located in Las Vegas Nevada just one mile south of the strip. The McCarran International Airport is part of the Clark county Airport system which owns and operates six airports, including five general aviation airports. These airports are operated under the policy direction of the Board of County Commissioners, the authority of the County Manager and the management of the director and Deputy Director of Aviation. The Department of Aviation is a self sufficient enterprise and operates without county general fund tax revenues. The areas of the McCarran airport that we will attempt to analyze are: the Airports’ history, current status, the future plans; design factors and an evaluation whether or not these factors are suitable for the existing and future needs of the airport. First we will discuss the current facts of the Airport. McCarran International is the fifth busiest airport in North America, and 12th in the world as of the year 2000. In 2001 passenger traffic was 35,203,808. Currently McCarran airport averages 96,449 passengers per day compared to the 1991 average of 55,266 per day. Between 1991 and 2000 passenger traffic has increased 74.5%. Currently more than 30 airlines provide nonstop service to more than 70 international and domestic destinations. All of the major airlines fly into the airport including United, southwest, American west, Delta, American, Continental and Northwest. This adds up to 30 Domestic Airlines, 23 International and 21 Charter. More than 900 daily schedule flights fly in and out of the Airport. McCarran offers nonstop scheduled service to Canada, Germany, Japan, Mexico and London. Also fourteen airfreight companies provide service through McCarran. McCarran consists of 92 aircraft gates at two separate terminal buildin gs. Terminal 1 has gates A-D with gate A totaling 19 gates, B 20 gates, C19 gates and D has 26 gates.... Free Essays on Airplanes Saftey Free Essays on Airplanes Saftey Airport management â€Å"McCarran Airport† The McCarran International airport is located in Las Vegas Nevada just one mile south of the strip. The McCarran International Airport is part of the Clark county Airport system which owns and operates six airports, including five general aviation airports. These airports are operated under the policy direction of the Board of County Commissioners, the authority of the County Manager and the management of the director and Deputy Director of Aviation. The Department of Aviation is a self sufficient enterprise and operates without county general fund tax revenues. The areas of the McCarran airport that we will attempt to analyze are: the Airports’ history, current status, the future plans; design factors and an evaluation whether or not these factors are suitable for the existing and future needs of the airport. First we will discuss the current facts of the Airport. McCarran International is the fifth busiest airport in North America, and 12th in the world as of the year 2000. In 2001 passenger traffic was 35,203,808. Currently McCarran airport averages 96,449 passengers per day compared to the 1991 average of 55,266 per day. Between 1991 and 2000 passenger traffic has increased 74.5%. Currently more than 30 airlines provide nonstop service to more than 70 international and domestic destinations. All of the major airlines fly into the airport including United, southwest, American west, Delta, American, Continental and Northwest. This adds up to 30 Domestic Airlines, 23 International and 21 Charter. More than 900 daily schedule flights fly in and out of the Airport. McCarran offers nonstop scheduled service to Canada, Germany, Japan, Mexico and London. Also fourteen airfreight companies provide service through McCarran. McCarran consists of 92 aircraft gates at two separate terminal buildin gs. Terminal 1 has gates A-D with gate A totaling 19 gates, B 20 gates, C19 gates and D has 26 gates....

5 Brilliant Motivation Tips to Help You Study - Proofread My Paper

5 Brilliant Motivation Tips to Help You Study - Proofread My Paper 5 Brilliant Motivation Tips to Help You Study If you’ve searched for motivation tips on our blog, we’re guessing that of all the things you want to be doing right now, working isn’t one of them. Maybe you’ve trawled the internet’s extensive archive of motivation-themed gifs already, only to find yourself stubbornly idle. Well if that’s the case, you’ve come to the right place. Below you’ll find five brilliant motivation tips to help you with your studies, so soon you’ll be working harder than a beaver in the busy season! 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Set Achievable Goals We all know the tyranny of the blank page. That little cursor blinking at you accusingly while you stare at a new document, not knowing how to start. And with longer papers, sometimes it seems like you’ll never be finished. It’s thus important to set achievable goals. When you start a new assignment, begin with something simple, like making a plan of what you’re going to do, compiling a list of sources or identifying your research questions. Likewise, when faced with a heavy workload, try to write a set number of words every day. You’ll be surprised how much progress you make! 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reward Yourself If you’re setting achievable targets, you should also reward yourself when you hit them. This might be as simple as saving your night out until you’ve got an important piece of work done. But you can also treat yourself with bigger prizes for completing major assignments. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Get Support No one can force you to feel motivated, but a little help can go a long way. If you’re struggling because you’re confused about something mentioned in class, for instance, try asking your professor for clarification. Similarly, if you find it hard to revise by yourself, start a study group with friends. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Get Competitive! When we say competitive, we don’t mean bragging to the rest of your class about your test scores. Rather, you should think of each paper as a chance to improve on the last one. Aim for a new personal best each time! Alternatively, you and a friend could compete against each other to see who can do best on each assignment. Try to be a graceful winner though, otherwise you might not be friends much longer. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Beware Bad Study Habits Finally, try to be aware of your own bad habits. This includes things like procrastination, low confidence and getting frustrated because your paper isn’t â€Å"perfect.† All of these will drain your motivation, so knowing how to spot them can help you stay on track.

2-1-3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

2-1-3 - Essay Example In this regard much like basic microeconomics this course is a continuation of principles that individuals and small groups make decisions to allocate resources. Some specific topics that we covered were efficiency of markets, disposable income, balance of payments, market inefficiencies, substitute goods, and the multiplier effect to name a few. What I personally got out of the class was a firmer understanding of supply and demand curves and the effect that some variables have on affecting the supply and quantity demanded. On a personal level I find it very interesting to physically graph how an increase in demand would move up the supply curve and ultimately increase prices. Since I gained a better understanding of this topic I am starting to look at real world situations with a whole new perspective. In this course you are expected to complete a fully integrated final project and in this regard you are going to have to complete work in a more or less unstructured environment. Furthermore it is always good to gain insight from your peers as collaborating can be an effective method to gain new perspectives on approaching problems. It may seem a little intimidating however it is important to keep in mind that the professors are there to help you. In terms of what could have been done differently I would have liked to have seen more opportunities to work with real world situations instead of examining some historical situations however it is the case that when one examines a historical situation the outcome is clearly defined and it does make for a better understanding of outcomes In order to be successful at this course, you are probably going to have to work well in a self motivated capacity. In this regard you are going to have to work hard to motivate yourself to study a great deal outside of the classroom. Furthermore, if topics are not entirely clear there is no

Civil Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Civil Law - Essay Example The basic purpose of punishing someone is to make him understand that he has committed a wrong and he should be made to pay for it, though not in terms of cash or something but in a manner that will do some good for this human being in the long run. Punishments have to be understood in the proper context, so as to state the least. We will delve further through the course of this paper as to how punishment is linked with morality, equality, rights of human beings and just about everything that comes under the banner. Equality is man's most perilous metaphor whereby it has haunted and made a fool of him for a number of years now. Equality and indeed justice takes into account a number of differences amongst people, top of the list of which includes the racial ones that are either ancestral which may be hereditary or inborn as well as cultural, i.e., procured from society after one's birth. This one can usually be changed or at times totally removed with the enforcement of changes that might be social in nature. These changes are in essence, autonomous of man's laws, rules, regulations and customs, except over a period of many eras. Justice particularly has a number of characteristics as it basically chalks down the conditions and necessities that are linked up with it. Justice within a society is not all about being fair but also holds a great deal of importance on being just and timely. It is a true saying that justice delayed is justice denied; for this reason justice takes both these things wh en it is defined in the truest sense of the word. Justice is radically associated with the mighty men - the rulers and the ones who govern a particular area or a regiment of soldiers. Justice thus holds supreme importance for these brave men as they are the ones who lay the foundation for the society to be a part of the equal rights and hence the fairness fable in general. The concepts of civil rights and of civil law are both functions of the concept of civil society whereby it is that bubble of private action free of government control. It is not free of government action, because government action secures the nature of civil society by the protection of persons against criminal wrongs. The essence of civil society is thus that people are left by government to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvement, while the government protects the citizens from criminal wrongs of violence, theft, fraud as well as many others. The most violent and heinous crimes committed anywhere in the world are by the youth. These are organized and in a proper manner, with no shortcomings at any end on anyone's part. Research has found out that the youth are the ones who are most definitely involved in this menace. At times, the politicians are the ones who use them in order to hold protests against any civil or governmental norm prevalent in a certain region of the world which enrage these youth. Studies have shown that the extreme cases of criminal behaviours all involved having youth at their expanse. They not only bring with them terror for the common citizens but also introduce a huge dust of alcohol, abuse of drugs and many other forbidden things in the society. The future generation should be made to stay away from this peril as much as possible. Studies show that these young people are those who are

Television And Cinema In Todays Context

Television And Cinema In Todays Context Communication has evolved from aural means (such as the example of Persian king Darius I, whom used his men to serve as communication tools by shouting messages at positioned heights) to inscriptions (as used by the Romans and Persians amongst others) to print in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The rise of print has also allowed new languages to flourish especially Spanish, French, Portuguese and English. These languages became the predominant vehicle of communication for the European colonial powers in numerous parts of the globe. The transplantation of communications system around the globe created a new hierarchy of language and culture in conquered territories (Thussu 2006, pp. 2). According to Carey (1999) the growth of communications in the nineteenth century had the practical effect of diminishing space as a differentiating criterion in human affairs. The development of telegraph has enabled rapid transference of information that of which only requires minutes when it would have taken months should post come via sea. This evolution of communication has aided people in terms of business opportunities and times of war which were numerous in that era. Western countries were quick to grasp the implications of new technologies such as printing presses and radio communication following their introduction. And to this day, western countries are the communication mammoths of the world. Radio was a popular tool for propaganda in both the First World War and Second World War such was the same for news agencies. Western countries the information rich were in a position to dictate terms to the information poor, creating a structure of dependency with widespread economic, political and social ramifications for the poor societies (Thussu 2006, pp. 31). This situation has favourably turned for the best in recent years. But it is seen that messages are dispersed and received to the public using mediums of communication be it print, radio or even word of mouth. According to Williams (1974) though there is a fundamental assumption that television and cinema has altered the world there is a division of opinions. First opinion, also known as technological determinism, is that the technology is accidental. It is a view that new technologies are discovered by an essentially internal process of research and development which then sets the conditions for social change and progress (Williams 1974, pp. 7). Which means to say that should the television or cinema have not been thought off, warranted events (cultural or social) would not have eventuated. Second opinion is that even though technologies are discovered by accident as a medium in a process of change, its intendment lies in its use which are held to be symptomatic of some order of society or some qualities of human nature which are otherwise determined (Williams 1974, pp. 6). Should cinema or television have not been thought off and yielded; this opinion would still run as the public would be manipulated in some other way. But nevertheless, these opinions are deeply rooted in social thoughts that it is essentially profound to think beyond them as histories of technology are written, unconsciously or consciously, based on assumptions. Cinema and television has exponential influence in todays world though it should be noted that they are not the only mass media mediums with the ability to have leverage on public. Cinema and television have altered the way in which beauty is perceived and paved away stereotype images. Women seen on the screens are often extremely beautiful to be appreciated as beautiful. This could be reversed for men; actors are often macho and handsome. Less than attractive people are often given the smaller or side-kick roles. This stereotype has led to the issue of body-image. Bulimia and anorexia are eating disorders that are rampant in todays teenage and young adults world. Individuals who withhold food from their body or whom willingly vomit to keep their bodies svelte and conform to todays definition of beautiful. A television show that is going against this norm is Ugly Betty which features a less than attractive female lead. The show ran for four seasons before ending in 2010. Other stereotypes that emerge from cinema and television are the perceptions that all Asians have small eyes, high school band members are nerdy, blondes are ditzy and dumb or men with shoulder length hair are surfer dudes. There is an increase openness towards sexuality: gay, bisexual or straight. Global giant and financial leader of television and cinema (Thussu 2006, pp. 121), Hollywood has made it possible for such characterisations to be made public in television shows such as The OC, Glee and Ugly Betty and movies such as Brokeback Mountain and Transamerica. It could not be said that the public is more tolerant of sexuality as this acceptance is based on individuals. The openness towards sexuality could also have a negative impact on the public as there are films and television shows that promote adultery and cheating. Television and cinema has minimized the issue of geographical distance. What people see on these two medium are relatable in their lives and could be applied to a situation that is similar to what an individual is going through no matter where they habit in. For example, if a Singaporean individual is confused about her sexuality, mediums that feature such a topic could easily be relatable to her and thus she could seek a sense of direction from them despite where they originated from be it America, United Kingdom or wherever else in the world . Television and cinema are exaggerated by nature to allow people to be more engaged. Thus what people see on these mediums are not the exact truths nor can they happen in real life. These mediums are developed yearly with increasing viewers appeal (more explosions, more sexually charged, more dramatic) to rake in more monetary profit for the distributors. Though at times hold truth such as the case of the movie Blood Diamond, a fictional story with real issues (the mining of diamonds in Africa) and real events. Though influences are not hard truth from reality of the world, majority of people could relate their reality to what they see on the medium. It is uncommon to hear comments in conversations that are tied to these mediums. For example: I had a Rachel Berry (reference to television show: Glee) moment. I literally word vomit (reference to movie: Mean Girls) my excuse to the lecturer. New social groups and communities are formed defined by their interest such as favourite movies and television shows. Television and cinemas are also influential not only in terms of characters but also in fashion and materialism product placement of brands that could be seen in the mediums. Lately, there is an increase in television shows and cinema that are adapted from books. Monetary appeal as distributors is able to franchise out into merchandises and sequels or prequels and soundtracks. Such as: Twilight, Harry Potter and Pretty Little Liars. In conclusion, television and cinemas has altered the way in which the public view the world. Though situations on screens are exaggerated, they are still influential and could leave a lasting impression on an individual. It should be noted that television and cinema are not the only mass mediums in the world. In todays times the synergy of mass mediums provides a bigger profit margin for distributors.

The Origins and Development Book

THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE This page intentionally left blank THE ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE S I X T H E D I T I O N John Algeo Based on the original work of Thomas Pyles   Australia †¢ Brazil †¢ Japan †¢ Korea †¢ Mexico †¢ Singapore †¢ Spain †¢ United Kingdom †¢ United States The Origins and Development of the English Language: Sixth Edition John Algeo Publisher: Michael Rosenberg Development Editor: Joan Flaherty Assistant Editor: Megan Garvey Editorial Assistant: Rebekah MatthewsSenior Media Editor: Cara Douglass-Graff Marketing Manager: Christina Shea Marketing Communications Manager: Beth Rodio Content Project Manager: Corinna Dibble Senior Art Director: Cate Rickard Barr Production Technology Analyst: Jamie MacLachlan Senior Print Buyer: Betsy Donaghey Rights Acquisitions Manager Text: Tim Sisler Production Service: Pre-Press PMG Rights Acquisitions Manager Image: Mandy Groszko Cover Designe r: Susan Shapiro Cover Image: Kobal Collection Art Archive collection Dagli Orti Prayer with illuminated border, from c. 1480 Flemish manuscriptBook of Hours of Philippe de Conrault, The Art Archive/ Bodleian Library Oxford Compositor: Pre-Press PMG  © 2010, 2005 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Academic Resource Center, 1-800-423-0563 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www. cengage. com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to [email  protected] com Library of Congress Control Number: 2008930433 ISBN-13: 978-1-4282-3145-0 ISBN-10: 1-4282-3145-5 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210USA Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www. cengage. com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www. ichapters. com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09 Preface The Origins and Development of the English Language, Sixth Edition, continues to focus on the facts of language rather than on any of the various contemporary theoretical approaches to the study of those facts.The presentation is that of fairly traditional grammar and philology, so as not to require students to master a new theoretical approach at the same time they are exploring the intricacies of lan guage history. The focus of the book is on the internal history of the English language: its sounds, grammar, and word stock. That linguistic history is, however, set against the social and cultural background of the changing times. The first three chapters are introductory, treating language in general as well as the pronunciation and orthography of present-day English.The succeeding central six chapters are the heart of the book, tracing the history of the language from prehistoric Indo-European days through Old English, Middle English, and early Modern English up to the present time. The final three chapters deal with vocabulary—the meaning, making, and borrowing of words. This sixth edition of a book Thomas Pyles wrote some forty-five years ago preserves the outline, emphasis, and aims of the original, as all earlier editions have. The entire book has, however, been revised for helpfulness to students and ease of reading.The major improvements of the fifth edition have be en retained. A large number of fresh changes have also been made, especially to make the presentation easier to follow. The historical information has been updated in response to evolving scholarship, new examples have been added (although effective older ones have been kept), the bibliography has been revised (including some new electronic resources in addition to print media), and the glossary has been revised for clarity and accuracy. The prose style throughout has been made more contemporary and accessible.The author hopes that such changes will help to make the book more useful for students and instructors alike. v All of the debts acknowledged in earlier editions are still gratefully acknowledged for this one. This edition has especially benefited from the critiques of the following reviewers, whose very helpful suggestions have been followed wherever feasible. James E. Doan, Nova Southeastern University Mark Alan Vinson, Crichton College Jay Ruud, University of Central Arkans as Elena Tapia, Eastern Connecticut State University J. Mark Baggett, Samford UniversityMy former doctoral student and now an admired teacher and Scholar-in-Residence at Shorter College, Carmen Acevedo Butcher, made a major contribution by suggesting improvements in the style and accuracy of the work, by providing new references for the bibliography (including electronic sources), and by reviewing the entire manuscript. My wife, Adele S. Algeo, who works with me on everything I do, has assisted at every step of the revision. Her editorial eye is nonpareil, and her support makes all work possible—and a pleasure. John Algeo vi PREFACE Contents PREFACE v chapter 1 Language and the English Language:An Introduction 1 A Definition of Language 2 Language as System 2 Grammatical Signals 3 Language as Signs 5 Language as Vocal 6 Writing and Speech 6 Gestures and Speech 8 Language as Conventional 8 Language Change 10 The Notion of Linguistic Corruption 10 Language Variation 11 Correctn ess and Acceptability 12 Language as Human 13 Theories of the Origin of Language 13 Innate Language Ability 14 Do Birds and Beasts Really Talk? 14 Language as Communication 15 Other Characteristics of Language 16 Why Study the History of English? 17 For Further Reading 18 vii chapter 2 The Sounds of Current English 20 The Organs of Speech 20Consonants of Current English 21 Vowels of Current English 25 Vowels before [r] 28 Stress 28 Unstressed Vowels 29 Kinds of Sound Change 29 Assimilation: Sounds Become More Alike 29 Dissimilation: Sounds Become Less Alike 30 Elision: Sounds Are Omitted 30 Intrusion: Sounds Are Added 31 Metathesis: Sounds Are Reordered 31 Causes of Sound Change 31 The Phoneme 32 Differing Transcriptions 33 For Further Reading 34 chapter 3 Letters and Sounds: A Brief History of Writing 35 Ideographic and Syllabic Writing 35 From Semitic Writing to the Greek Alphabet 36 The Greek Vowel and Consonant Symbols 36 The Romans Adopt the Greek Alphabet 37Later Developments of the Roman and Greek Alphabets 38 The Use of Digraphs 39 Additional Symbols 39 The History of English Writing 40 The Germanic Runes 40 The Anglo-Saxon Roman Alphabet 40 The Spelling of English Consonant Sounds 41 Stops 42 Fricatives 42 Affricates 43 Nasals 43 Liquids 43 Semivowels 43 The Spelling of English Vowel Sounds 43 Front Vowels 43 Central Vowel 44 Back Vowels 44 Diphthongs 45 Vowels plus [r] 45 viii CONTENTS Unstressed Vowels 45 Spelling Pronunciations and Pronunciation Spellings 46 Writing and History 47 For Further Reading 48 chapter 4 The Backgrounds of English 49 Indo-European Origins 50Indo-European Culture 50 The Indo-European Homeland 50 How Indo-European Was Discovered 51 Language Typology and Language Families 52 Non-Indo-European Languages 53 Main Divisions of the Indo-European Group 55 Indo-Iranian 55 Armenian and Albanian 58 Tocharian 58 Anatolian 59 Balto-Slavic 59 Hellenic 60 Italic 60 Celtic 61 Germanic 62 Cognate Words in the Indo-European Languages 63 Infl ection in the Indo-European Languages 64 Some Verb Inflections 65 Some Noun Inflections 66 Word Order in the Indo-European Languages 67 Major Changes From Indo-European to Germanic 69 First Sound Shift 71 Grimm’s Law 71 Verner’s Law 73The Sequence of the First Sound Shift 74 West Germanic Languages 74 For Further Reading 76 chapter 5 The Old English Period (449–1100) 78 Some Key Events in the Old English Period 78 History of the Anglo-Saxons 79 Britain before the English 79 The Coming of the English 79 The English in Britain 81 CONTENTS ix The First Viking Conquest 82 The Second Viking Conquest 83 The Scandinavians Become English 84 The Golden Age of Old English 84 Dialects of Old English 85 Pronunciation and Spelling 86 Vowels 86 Consonants 87 Handwriting 89 Stress 90 Vocabulary 90 The Germanic Word Stock 90 Gender in Old English 91Grammar, Concord, and Inflection 92 Inflection 92 Nouns 93 i-Umlaut 95 Modern Survivals of Case and Number 96 Modifiers 96 Demonstr atives 96 Adjectives 97 Adverbs 98 Pronouns 99 Personal Pronouns 99 Interrogative and Relative Pronouns 100 Verbs 101 Indicative Forms of Verbs 102 Subjunctive and Imperative Forms 102 Nonfinite Forms 102 Weak Verbs 103 Strong Verbs 103 Preterit-Present Verbs 104 Suppletive Verbs 105 Syntax 105 Old English Illustrated 108 For Further Reading 111 chapter 6 The Middle English Period (1100–1500) 112 Some Key Events in the Middle English Period 112 The Background of the Norman Conquest 113The Reascendancy of English 114 Foreign Influences on Vocabulary 115 Middle English Spelling 116 x CONTENTS Consonants 116 Vowels 118 The Rise of a London Standard 119 Changes in Pronunciation 122 Principal Consonant Changes 122 Middle English Vowels 123 Changes in Diphthongs 124 Lengthening and Shortening of Vowels 126 Leveling of Unstressed Vowels 127 Loss of Schwa in Final Syllables 127 Changes in Grammar 128 Reduction of Inflections 128 Loss of Grammatical Gender 129 Nouns, Pronouns, and Adj ectives 129 The Inflection of Nouns 129 Personal Pronouns 130 Demonstrative Pronouns 132 Interrogative and Relative Pronouns 133Comparative and Superlative Adjectives 133 Verbs 133 Personal Endings 134 Participles 135 Word Order 135 Middle English Illustrated 136 For Further Reading 138 chapter 7 The Early Modern English Period (1500–1800): Society, Spellings, and Sounds 139 Some Key Events in the Early Modern Period 139 The Transition from Middle to Modern English 140 Expansion of the English Vocabulary 140 Innovation of Pronunciation and Conservation of Spelling 141 The Orthography of Early Modern English 141 The Great Vowel Shift 144 Other Vowels 147 Stressed Short Vowels 147 Diphthongs 148 Quantitative Vowel Changes 149Early Modern English Consonants 149 Evidence for Early Modern Pronunciation 151 Stress 151 Scholarly Studies 151 CONTENTS xi Early Modern English Illustrated 152 Spelling 152 Pronunciation 153 For Further Reading 155 chapter 8 The Early Modern English Perio d (1500–1800): Forms, Syntax, and Usage 156 The Study of Language 157 Early Dictionaries 157 Eighteenth-Century Attitudes toward Grammar and Usage 158 Nouns 160 Irregular Plurals 161 His-Genitive 161 Group Genitive 162 Uninflected Genitive 163 Adjectives and Adverbs 163 Pronouns 164 Personal Pronouns 164 Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 168Case Forms of the Pronouns 169 Verbs 170 Classes of Strong Verbs 170 Endings for Person and Number 176 Contracted Forms 177 Expanded Verb Forms 178 Other Verbal Constructions 179 Prepositions 179 Early Modern English Further Illustrated 180 chapter 9 Late Modern English (1800–Present) 181 Some Key Events in the Late Modern Period 181 The National Varieties of English 182 Conservatism and Innovation in American English 183 National Differences in Word Choice 185 American Infiltration of the British Word Stock 186 Syntactical and Morphological Differences 187 British and American Purism 188 Dictionaries and the Facts 189National Dif ferences in Pronunciation 190 British and American Spelling 193 Variation within National Varieties 194 xii CONTENTS Kinds of Variation 194 Regional Dialects 195 Ethnic and Social Dialects 196 Stylistic Variation 198 Variation within British English 198 World English 199 Irish English 199 Indian English 201 The Essential Oneness of All English 202 For Further Reading 202 chapter 10 Words and Meanings 206 Semantics and Change of Meaning 207 Variable and Vague Meanings 208 Etymology and Meaning 208 How Meaning Changes 209 Generalization and Specialization 210 Transfer of Meaning 211 Association of Ideas 212Transfer from Other Languages 212 Sound Associations 213 Pejoration and Amelioration 213 Taboo and Euphemism 214 The Fate of Intensifying Words 217 Some Circumstances of Semantic Change 218 Vogue for Words of Learned Origin 219 Language and Semantic Marking 220 Semantic Change is Inevitable 222 For Further Reading 223 chapter 11 New Words from Old 224 Creating Words 224 Root Creatio ns 224 Echoic Words 225 Ejaculations 225 Combining Words: Compounding 227 Spelling and Pronunciation of Compounds 227 Amalgamated Compounds 229 Function and Form of Compounds 230 Combining Word Parts: Affixing 230 Affixes from Old English 230Affixes from Other Languages 232 CONTENTS xiii Voguish Affixes 233 Shortening Words 235 Clipped Forms 235 Initialisms: Alphabetisms and Acronyms 236 Apheretic and Aphetic Forms 237 Back-Formations 238 Blending Words 239 New Morphemes from Blending 239 Folk Etymology 241 Shifting Words to New Uses 242 One Part of Speech to Another 242 Common Words from Proper Names 243 Sources of New Words 245 Distribution of New Words 245 For Further Reading 246 chapter 12 Foreign Elements in the English Word Stock 247 Popular and Learned Loanwords 248 Latin and Greek Loanwords 248 Latin Influence in the Germanic Period 248Latin Words in Old English 249 Latin Words Borrowed in Middle English Times 250 Latin Words Borrowed in Modern English Times 251 Greek Loanwo rds 251 Celtic Loanwords 252 Scandinavian Loanwords 253 Old and Middle English Borrowings 253 Modern English Borrowings 254 French Loanwords 254 Middle English Borrowings 254 Later French Loanwords 256 Spanish and Portuguese Loanwords 258 Italian Loanwords 259 Germanic Loanwords 260 Loanwords from Low German 260 Loanwords from High German 261 Loanwords from the East 262 Near East 262 Iran and India 263 Far East and Australasia 264 Other Sources 265 Loanwords from African Languages 265Slavic, Hungarian, Turkish, and American Indian 266 xiv CONTENTS The Sources of Recent Loanwords 266 English Remains English 267 For Further Reading 268 Selected Bibliography 269 Glossary 281 Index of Modern English Words and Affixes 301 Index of Persons, Places, and Topics 329 CONTENTS xv This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER  ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ± Language and the 1 English Language A n Introduction The English language has had a remarkable history. When we first catch sight of it in historical records, it is the speech of some none-too-civilized tribes on the continent of Europe along the North Sea.Of course, it had a still earlier history, going back perhaps to somewhere in eastern Europe or western Asia, and long before that to origins we can only speculate about. From those murky and undistinguished beginnings, English has become the most widespread language in the world, used by more peoples for more purposes than any other language on Earth. How the English language changed from being the speech of a few small tribes to becoming the major language of the Earth—and in the process itself changed radically— is the subject of this book.Whatever language we speak—English, Chinese, Hindi, Swahili, or Arapaho— helps to define us personally and identify the community we belong to. But the fact that we can talk at all, the fact that we ha ve a language, is inextricably bound up with our humanity. To be human is to use language, and to talk is to be a person. As the biologist and author Lewis Thomas wrote: The gift of language is the single human trait that marks us all genetically, setting us apart from the rest of life. Language is, like nest-building or hive-making, the universal and biologically specific activity of human beings.We engage in it communally, compulsively, and automatically. We cannot be human without it; if we were to be separated from it our minds would die, as surely as bees lost from the hive. (Lives of a Cell 89) The language gift that is innate in us is not English or indeed any specific language. It is instead the ability to learn and to use a human language. When we say, â€Å"Bread is the staff of life,† we do not mean any particular kind of bread— whole wheat, rye, pumpernickel, French, matzo, pita, or whatever sort. We are talking instead about the kind of thing bread is, wha t all bread has in common.So also, when we say that language is the basis of our humanity, we do not mean any particular language—English, Spanish, Japanese, Tagalog, Hopi, or ASL (American Sign Language of the deaf). Rather we mean the ability to learn and 1 use any such particular language system, an ability that all human beings naturally have. This ability is language in the abstract, as distinct from any individual language system. A DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE A language is a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate. This definition has several important terms, each of which is examined in some detail in the following sections.Those terms are system, signs, vocal, conventional, human, and communicate. LANGUAGE AS SYSTEM Perhaps the most important word in the definition of language is system. We speak in patterns. A language is not just a collection of words, such as we find in a dictionary. It is also the rules or patterns that relate our words to one another. Every language has two levels to its system—a characteristic that is called duality of patterning. One of these levels consists of meaningful units—for example, the words and word parts such as Adam, like, -d, apple, and -s in the sentence â€Å"Adam liked apples. The other level consists of units that have no meaning in themselves, although they serve as components of the meaningful units—for example, the sounds represented by the letters a, d, and m in the word Adam. The distinction between a meaningful word (Adam) and its meaningless parts (a, d, and m) is important. Without that distinction, language as we know it would be impossible. If every meaning had to be represented by a unique, unanalyzable sound, only a few such meanings could be expressed. We have only about 35 basic sounds in English; we have hundreds of thousands of words.Duality of patterning lets us build an immensely large number of meaningful words out of only a handfu l of meaningless sounds. It is perhaps the chief characteristic that distinguishes true human language from the simpler communication systems of all nonhuman animals. The meaningless components of a language are its sound system, or phonology. The meaningful units are its lexis, or vocabulary, and its grammatical system, or morphosyntax. All have patterning. Thus, according to the sound system of Modern English, the consonant combination mb never occurs at the beginning or at the end of any word.As a matter of fact, it did occur in final position in earlier stages of our language, which is why it was necessary in the preceding statement to specify â€Å"Modern English. † Despite the complete absence of the sounds mb at the ends of English words for at least 600 years, we still insist on writing—such is the conservatism of writing habits—the b in lamb, climb, tomb, dumb, and a number of other words. But this same combination, which now occurs only medially in Eng lish (as in tremble), may well occur finally or even initially in other languages.Initial mb is indeed a part of the systems of certain African languages, as in Efik and Ibibio mbakara ‘white man,’ which became buckra in the speech of the Gullahs—black Americans living along the coastal region of Georgia and South Carolina who have preserved a number of words and structural features that their ancestors brought from Africa. It is notable that the Gullahs simplified the initial 2 chapter 1 consonant combination of this African word to conform to the pattern of English speech. The lexis or vocabulary of a language is its least systematic aspect.Grammar is sometimes defined as everything in a language that can be stated in general rules, and lexis as everything that is unpredictable. But that is not quite true. Certain combinations of words, called collocations, are more or less predictable. Mild and gentle are words of very similar meaning, but they go with differe nt nouns: â€Å"mild weather† and â€Å"gentle breeze† are somewhat more likely than the opposite combinations (â€Å"mild breeze† and â€Å"gentle weather†). A case of the flu may be severe or mild; a judgment is likely to be severe or lenient.A â€Å"mild judgment† would be a bit odd, and a â€Å"lenient case of the flu† sounds like a joke. Some collocations are so regular that they are easily predictable. In the following sentence, one word is more probable than any other in the blank: â€Å"In its narrow cage, the lion paced back and . † Although several words are possible in the blank (for example, forward or even ahead), forth is the most likely. Some combinations are completely predictable: â€Å"They ran fro. † Fro is normal in present-day English only in the expression â€Å"to and fro. † The tendency of certain words to collocate or go together is an instance of system in the vocabulary.In the grammatical syste m of English, a very large number of words take a suffix written as -s to indicate plurality or possession. In the latter case, it is a comparatively recent convention of writing to add an apostrophe. Words that can be thus modified are nouns. They fit into certain patterns in English utterances. Alcoholic, for instance, fits into the system of English in the same way as duck, dog, and horse: â€Å"Alcoholics need understanding† (compare â€Å"Ducks need water†), â€Å"An alcoholic’s perceptions are faulty† (compare â€Å"A dog’s perceptions are keen†), and the like.But that word can also modify a noun and be modified by an adverb: â€Å"an alcoholic drink,† â€Å"somewhat alcoholic,† and the like; and words that operate in the latter way are called adjectives. Alcoholic is thus either an adjective or a noun, depending on the way it functions in the system of English. The utterance â€Å"Alcoholic worries† is ambiguous b ecause our system, like all linguistic systems, is not completely foolproof. It might be either a noun followed by a verb (in a newspaper headline) or an adjective followed by a noun.To know which interpretation is correct, we need a context for the expression. That is, we need to relate it to a larger structure. Grammatical Signals The grammatical system of any language has various techniques for relating words to one another within the structure of a sentence. The following kinds of signals are especially important. †¢ Parts of speech are grammatical categories into which we can classify words. The four major ones are noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Some words elong primarily or solely to one part of speech: child is a noun, seek is a verb, tall is an adjective, and rapidly is an adverb. Other words can function as more than one part of speech; in various meanings, last can be any of the four major parts. English speakers move words about pretty freely from one part of spe ech to another, as when we call a book that is enjoyable to read â€Å"a good read,† language and the english language 3 making a noun out of a verb. Part of knowing English is knowing how words can be shifted in that way and what the limits are to such shifting. Affixes are one or more added sounds or letters that change a word’s meaning and sometimes alter its part of speech. When an affix comes at the front of a word, it is a prefix, such as the en- in encipher, enrage, enthrone, entomb, entwine, and enwrap, which marks those words as verbs. When an affix comes at the back of a word, it is a suffix, such as the -ist in dentist, geologist, motorist, and violinist, which marks those words as nouns. English has a small number of inflectional suffixes (endings that mark distinctions of number, case, person, tense, mood, and comparison).They include the plural -s and the possessive ’s used with nouns (boys, boy’s); the third person singular present tense -s , the past tense and past participle -ed, and the present participle -ing used with verbs (aids, aided, aiding); and the comparative -er and superlative -est used with some adjectives and adverbs (slower, slowest). Inflection (the change in form of a word to mark such distinctions) may also involve internal change, as in the singular and plural noun forms man and men or the present and past verb forms sing and sang.A language that depends heavily on the use of inflections, either internal or affixed, is said to be synthetic; English used to be far more synthetic than it now is. †¢ Concord, or agreement, is an interconnection between words, especially marked by their inflections. Thus, â€Å"The bird sings† and â€Å"The birds sing† illustrate subject-verb concord. (It is just a coincidence that the singular ending of some verbs is identical in form with the plural ending of some nouns. Similarly, in â€Å"this day† both words are singular, and in â€Å"the se days† both are plural; some languages, such as Spanish, require that all modifiers agree with the nouns they modify in number, but in English only this and that change their form to show such agreement. Highly synthetic languages, such as Latin, usually have a great deal of concord; thus Latin adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in number (bonus vir ‘good man,’ boni viri ‘good men’), in gender (bona femina ‘good woman’), and in case (bonae feminae ‘good woman’s’).English once used concord more than it now does. †¢ Word order is a grammatical signal in all languages, though some languages, like English, depend more heavily on it than others do. â€Å"The man finished the job† and â€Å"The job finished the man† are sharply different in meaning, as are â€Å"He died happily† and â€Å"Happily he died. † †¢ Function words are minor parts of speech (for example, articles, au xiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, and certain adverbial particles) that serve as grammatical signals used with word order to serve some of the same functions as inflections.For example, in English the indirect object of a verb can be shown by either word order (â€Å"I gave the dog a bone†) or a function word (â€Å"I gave a bone to the dog†); in Latin it is shown by inflection (canis ‘the dog,’ Cani os dedi ‘To-the-dog a-bone I-gave’). A language like English whose grammar depends heavily on the use of word order and function words is said to be analytic. †¢ Prosodic signals, such as pitch, stress, and tempo, can indicate grammatical meaning. The difference between the statement â€Å"He’s here† and the question 4 chapter 1 â€Å"He’s here? † is the pitch used at the end of the sentence.The chief difference between the verb conduct and the noun conduct is that the verb has a stronger stress on i ts second syllable and the noun on its first syllable. In â€Å"He died happily† and â€Å"He died, happily,† the tempo of the last two words makes an important difference of meaning. All languages have these kinds of grammatical signals available to them, but languages differ greatly in the use they make of the various signals. And even a single language may change its use over time, as English has. LANGUAGE AS SIGNS In language, signs are what the system organizes.A sign is something that stands for something else—for example, a word like apple, which stands for the familiar fruit. But linguistic signs are not words alone; they may also be either smaller or larger than whole words. The smallest linguistic sign is the morpheme, a meaningful form that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts. The word apple is a single morpheme; applejack consists of two morphemes, each of which can also function independently as a word. Apples also has two morphemes, but one (-s) can occur only as part of a word. Morphemes that can be used alone as words (such as apple and jack) are called free morphemes.Those that must be combined with other morphemes to make a word (such as -s) are bound morphemes. The word reactivation has five morphemes in it (one free and four bound), as a stepby- step analysis shows: re-activation activate-ion active-ate act-ive Thus reactivation has one free morpheme (act) and four bound morphemes (re-, -ive, -ate, and -ion). A word cannot be divided into morphemes just by sounding out its syllables. Some morphemes, like apple, have more than one syllable; others, like -s, are less than a syllable. A morpheme is a form (a sequence of sounds) with a recognizable meaning.Knowing a word’s early history, or etymology, may be useful in dividing it into morphemes, but the decisive factor is the form-meaning link. A morpheme may, however, have more than one pronunciation or spelling. For example, the regular noun plural endi ng has two spellings (-s and -es) and three pronunciations (an s-sound as in backs, a z-sound as in bags, and a vowel plus z-sound as in batches). Each spoken variation is called an allomorph of the plural morpheme. Similarly, when the morpheme -ate is followed by -ion (as in activateion), the t of -ate combines with the i of -ion as the sound â€Å"sh† (so we might spell the word â€Å"activashon†).Such allomorphic variation is typical of the morphemes of English, even though the spelling does not represent it. Morphemes can also be classified as base morphemes and affixes. An affix is a bound morpheme that is added to a base morpheme, either a prefix (such as re-) or a suffix (such as -s, -ive, -ate, and -ion). Most base morphemes are free (such as language and the english language 5 apple and act), but some are bound (such as the insul- of insulate). A word that has two or more bases (such as applejack) is called a compound. A linguistic sign may be word-sized or sm aller—a free or a bound morpheme.But it may also be larger than a word. An idiom is a combination of words whose meaning cannot be predicted from its constituent parts. One kind of idiom is the combination of a verb with an adverb, a preposition, or both—for instance, turn on (a light), call up (on the telephone), take over (a business), ask for (a job), come down with (an illness), and go back on (a promise). Such an expression is a single semantic unit: to go back on is to ‘abandon’ a promise. But from the standpoint of grammar, several independent words are involved. LANGUAGE AS VOCALLanguage is a system that can be expressed in many ways—by the marks on paper or a computer screen that we call writing, by hand signals and gestures as in sign language, by colored lights or moving flags as in semaphore, and by electronic clicks as in old-fashioned telegraphy. However, the signs of language—its words and morphemes—are basically vocal, or oral-aural, being sounds produced by the mouth and received by the ear. If human communication had developed primarily as a system of gestures (like the sign language of the deaf), it would have been quite different from what it is.Because sounds follow one another sequentially in time, language has a one-dimensional quality (like the letters we use to represent it in writing), whereas gestures can fill the three dimensions of space as well as the fourth dimension of time. The ears can hear sounds coming from any direction, but the eyes can see gestures made only in front of them. The ears can hear through physical barriers, such as walls, which the eyes cannot see through. Speech has both advantages and disadvantages in comparison with gestures; but on the whole, it is undoubtedly superior, as its evolutionary survival demonstrates.Writing and Speech Because writing has become so important in our culture, we sometimes think of it as more real than speech. A little thought, howev er, will show why speech is primary and writing secondary to language. Human beings have been writing (as far as we can tell from the surviving evidence) for at least 5000 years; but they have been talking for much longer, doubtless ever since they were fully human. When writing developed, it was derived from and represented speech, albeit imperfectly (see Chapter 3). Even today there are spoken languages that have no written form.Furthermore, we learn to talk long before we learn to write; any human child without physical or mental limitations will learn to talk, and most human beings cannot be prevented from doing so. It is as though we were â€Å"programmed† to acquire language in the form of speech. On the other hand, it takes a special effort to learn to write. In the past, many intelligent and useful members of society did not acquire that skill, and even today many who speak languages with writing systems never learn to read or write, while some who learn the rudiments of those skills do so only imperfectly.To affirm the primacy of speech over writing is not, however, to disparage the latter. If speaking makes us human, writing makes us civilized. Writing has some 6 chapter 1 advantages over speech. For example, it is more permanent, thus making possible the records that any civilization must have. Writing is also capable of easily making some distinctions that speech can make only with difficulty. We can, for example, indicate certain types of pauses more clearly by the spaces that we leave between words when we write than we ordinarily are able to do when we speak.Grade A may well be heard as gray day, but there is no mistaking the one phrase for the other in writing. Similarly, the comma distinguishes â€Å"a pretty, hot day† from â€Å"a pretty hot day† more clearly than these phrases are often distinguished in actual speech. But the question mark does not distinguish between â€Å"Why did you do it? † (I didn’t he ar you the first time you told me), with rising pitch at the end, and â€Å"Why did you do it? † (You didn’t tell me), with falling terminal pitch. Nor can we show in writing the difference between sound quality ‘tone’ (as in â€Å"The sound quality of the recording was excellent†) nd sound quality ‘good grade’ (as in â€Å"The materials were of sound quality†)—a difference that we signal very easily in speech by strongly stressing sound in the first sentence and the first syllable of quality in the second. Incense ‘enrage’ and incense ‘aromatic substance for burning’ are likewise sharply differentiated in speech by the position of the stress, as sewer ‘conduit’ and sewer ‘one who sews’ are differentiated by vowel quality. In writing we can distinguish those words only in context. Words that are pronounced alike are called homophones.They may be spelled the same, such as bear ‘carry’ and bear ‘animal,’ or they may be distinguished in spelling, such as bare ‘naked’ and either of the bear words. Words that are written alike are called homographs. They may also be pronounced the same, such as the two bear words or tear ‘to rip’ and tear ‘spree’ (as in â€Å"He went on a tear†), or they may be distinguished in pronunciation, such as tear ‘a drop from the eye’ and either of the other two tear words. Homonym is a term that covers either homophones or homographs, that is, a word either pronounced or spelled like another, such as all bear/bare and tear words.Homophones are the basis of puns, as in childish jokes about â€Å"a bear behind† and â€Å"seven days without chocolate make one weak,† whose written forms resolve the ambiguity of their spoken forms. But William Shakespeare was by no means averse to this sort of thing: puns involving tale and tail, whole and hole, hoar and whore, and a good many other homophones (some, like stale and steal, no longer homophonous) occur rather frequently in the writings of our greatest poet. The conventions of writing differ somewhat from those of ordinary speech.For instance, we ordinarily write was not, do not, and would not, although we usually say wasn’t, don’t, and wouldn’t. Furthermore, our choice of words is likely to be different in writing and in everyday speech. But these are stylistic matters, as is also the fact that writing tends to be somewhat more conservative than speech. Representing the spellings of one language by those of another is transliteration, which must not be confused with translation, the interpretation of one language by another. Greek an be transliterated pyr, as in pyromaniac, or translated fire, as in firebug. One language can be written in several orthographies (or writing systems). When the president of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later calle d Kemal Ataturk), in 1928 substituted the Roman alphabet for the Arabic in writing Turkish, the Turkish language and the english language 7 language changed no more than time changed when he introduced the Gregorian calendar in his country to replace the Islamic lunar one used earlier. Gestures and SpeechSuch specialized gestures as the indifferent shrug of the shoulders, the admonitory shaking of the finger, the lifting up of the hand in greeting and the waving of it in parting, the widening of the eyes in astonishment, the scornful lifting of the brows, the approving nod, and the disapproving sideways shaking of the head—all these need not accompany speech at all; they themselves communicate. Indeed, there is some reason to think that gestures are older than spoken language and are the matrix out of which it developed. Like language itself, such gestures vary in use and meaning from one culture to another.In India, a sideways wagging of the head indicates that the head-wagg er understands what another person is saying. When gestures accompany speech, they may be more or less unconscious, like the crossed arms of a person talking with another, indicating a lack of openness to the other’s ideas. The study of such communicative body movements is known as kinesics. Our various tones of voice—the drawl, the sneer, the shout, the whimper, the simper, and the like—also play a part in communication (which we recognize when we say, â€Å"I didn’t mind what he said, I just didn’t like the way he said it†).The tones and gestures that accompany speech are not language, but rather parallel systems of communication called paralanguage. Other vocalizations that are communicative, like laughing, crying, groaning, and yelping, usually do not accompany speech as tones of voice do, though they may come before or after it. LANGUAGE AS CONVENTIONAL Writing is obviously conventional because we can represent the same language by more than one writing system.Japanese, for example, is written with kanji (ideographs representing whole words), with either of two syllabaries (writing systems that present each syllable with a separate symbol), or with the letters of the Roman alphabet. Similarly, we could by general agreement reform English spelling (soe dhat, for egzammpul, wee spelt it liek dhis). We can change the conventions of our writing system merely by agreeing to do so. Although it is not so obvious, speech is also conventional. To be sure, all languages share certain natural, inherent, or universal features.The human vocal apparatus (lips, teeth, tongue, and so forth) makes it inevitable that human languages have only a limited range of sounds. Likewise, since all of us live in the same universe and perceive our universe through the same senses with more or less the same basic mental equipment, it is hardly surprising that we should find it necessary to talk about more or less the same things in more or les s similar ways. Nevertheless, the world’s many languages are conventional and generally arbitrary; that is to say, there is usually no connection between the sounds we make and the phenomena of life.A comparatively small number of echoic words imitate, more or less closely, other sounds. Bow-wow seems to English speakers to 8 chapter 1 be a fairly accurate imitation of the sound made by a dog and therefore not to be wholly arbitrary, but it is highly doubtful that a dog would agree, particularly a French dog, which says gnaf-gnaf, or a German one, which says wau-wau, or a Japanese one, which says wung-wung. In Norway cows do not say â€Å"moo† but mmmooo, sheep do not say â€Å"baa† but m? , and pigs do not say â€Å"oink† but noffnoff. Norwegian hens very sensibly say klukk-klukk, though doubtless with a heavy Norwegian accent.The process of echoing such sounds (also called onomatopoeia) is conventional. Most people assume that their language is the best —and so it is for them, because they mastered it well enough for their own purposes so long ago that they cannot remember when or how. It seems to them more logical and sensible, more natural, than the way others talk. But there is nothing really natural about any language, since all these highly systematized and conventionalized methods of human communication must be acquired. There is, for instance, nothing natural in our use of is in such a sentence as â€Å"The woman is busy. The utterance can be made just as effectively without that verb, and some languages do get along perfectly well without it. This use of the verb to be was, as a matter of fact, late in developing and never developed in Russian. To the speaker of Russian it is more â€Å"natural† to say â€Å"Zhenshchina zanyata†Ã¢â‚¬â€ literally, â€Å"Woman busy†Ã¢â‚¬â€which sounds to our ears so much like baby talk that the unsophisticated speaker of English might well (though quite wrongly) conclude that Russian is a childish tongue. The system of Russian also manages to struggle along without the definite article the.As a matter of fact, the speaker of Russian never misses it—nor should we if it had not become conventional with us. To a naive speaker of English, calling the organ of sight eye may seem perfectly natural, and those who call it anything else—like the Germans, who call it Auge, the Russians, who call it glaz, or the Japanese, who call it me—are likely to be regarded as unfortunate because they do not speak languages in which things are properly named. The fact is, however, that eye, which we pronounce exactly like I (a fact that might be cited against it by a foreign speaker), is the name of the organ only in present-day English.It has not always been so. Londoners of the fourteenth century pronounced the word with two syllables, something like â€Å"ee-eh. † If we chose to go back to King Alfred’s day in the late ninth century, we would find yet another form of the word from which Modern English eye developed. The Scots are not being quaint or perverse when they say â€Å"ee† for eye, as in Robert Burns’s poem â€Å"To a Mouse†: Still thou art blest, compared wi’ me! The present only toucheth thee: But och! I backward cast my e’e, On prospects drear!The Scots form is merely a variant of the word—a perfectly legitimate pronunciation that happens not to occur in standard Modern English. Knowledge of such changes within a single language should dissipate the notion that any word is more appropriate than any other word, except in a purely chronological and social sense. language and the english language 9 Language Change Change is normal in language. Every language is constantly turning into something different, and when we hear a new word or a new pronunciation or use of an old word, we may be catching the early stages of a change.Change is natural because a language system is culturally transmitted. Like other conventional matters—such as fashions in clothing, hairstyles, cooking, entertainment, and government—language is constantly being revised. Language evolves more slowly than do some other cultural activities, but its change is continuous and inevitable. There are three general causes of language change. First, words and sounds may affect neighboring words and sounds. For example, sandwich is often pronounced, not as the spelling suggests, but in ways that might be represented as â€Å"sanwich,† â€Å"sanwidge,† â€Å"samwidge,† or even â€Å"sammidge. Such spellings look illiterate, but they represent perfectly normal, though informal, pronunciations that result from the position of a sound within the word. When nearby elements thus influence one another within the flow of speech, the result is called syntagmatic change. Second, words and sounds may be affected by others that are not immediate ly present but with which they are associated. For example, the side of a ship on which it was laden (that is, loaded) was called the ladeboard, but its opposite, starboard, influenced a change in pronunciation to larboard.Then, because larboard was likely to be confused with starboard because of their similarity of sound, it was generally replaced by port. Such change is called paradigmatic or associative change. Third, a language may change because of the influence of events in the world. New technologies like the World Wide Web require new forms like google ‘to search the Internet for information’ and wiki (as in Wikipedia) ‘a Website, database, or software for creating Web sites, especially collaborative ones,’ from the Hawaiian word for ‘fast. New forms of human behavior, however bizarre, require new terms like suicide bomber. New concepts in science require new terms like transposon ‘a transposable gene in DNA. ’ In addition, new co ntacts with persons who use speechways different from our own may affect our pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar. Social change thus modifies speech. The documented history of the English language begins about A. D. 700, with the oldest written records. We can reconstruct some of the prehistory before that time, to as early as about 4000 B. C. but the farther back in time we go, the less certain we can be about what the language was like. The history of our language is traditionally divided into three periods: Old English, from the earliest records (or from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of England around A. D. 450) to about 1100; Middle English, approximately from 1100 to 1500; and Modern English, since about 1500. The lines dividing the three periods are based on significant changes in the language about those times, but major cultural changes around 1100 and 1500 also contribute to our sense of new beginnings.These matters are treated in detail in Chapters 5 through 8. The No tion of Linguistic Corruption A widely held notion resulting from a misunderstanding of change is that there are ideal forms of languages, thought of as â€Å"pure,† and that existing languages represent corruptions of earlier ideal ones. Thus, the Greek spoken today is supposed to 10 chapter 1 be a degraded form of Classical Greek rather than what it really is, a development of it. Since the Romance languages are developments of Latin, it would follow from this point of view that they also are corrupt, although this assumption is not usually made.Those who admire or profess to admire Latin literature sometimes suppose that a stage of perfection had been reached in Classical Latin and that every subsequent development in Latin was an irreparable deterioration. From this point of view, the late development of Latin spoken in the early Middle Ages (sometimes called Vulgar, or popular, Latin) is â€Å"bad† Latin, which, strange as it may seem, was ultimately to become â⠂¬Å"good† Italian, French, Spanish, and so on. Because we hear so much about â€Å"pure† English, we might carefully examine this notion.When Captain Frederick Marryat, an English novelist, visited the United States in 1837–1838, he thought it â€Å"remarkable how very debased the language has become in a short period in America,† adding that â€Å"if their lower classes are more intelligible than ours, it is equally true that the higher classes do not speak the language so purely or so classically as it is spoken among the well-educated English. † Both statements are nonsense. The first is based on the captain’s apparent notion that the English language had reached a stage of perfection at the time English-speaking people first settled America.After this, presumably because of the innate depravity of those English settlers who brought their language to the New World, it had taken a steadily downward course, whatever that may mean. One wonder s also precisely how Marryat knew what constituted â€Å"classical† or â€Å"pure† English. It is probable that he was merely attributing certain superior qualities to that type of English that he was accustomed to hear from persons of good social standing in the land of his birth and that he himself spoke. Any divergence was â€Å"debased†: â€Å"My speech is pure; thine, wherein it differs from mine, is corrupt. Language Variation In addition to its change through the years, at any given period of time a language exists in many varieties. Historical, or diachronic, variation is matched by contemporary, or synchronic, variation. The latter is of two kinds: dialects and registers. A dialect is the variety of a language associated with a particular place (Boston or New Orleans), social level (standard or nonstandard), ethnic group (Jewish or African-American), sex (male or female), age grade (teenage or mature), and so on.Most of us have a normal way of using la nguage that is an intersection of such dialects and that marks us as being, for example, a middle-aged, white, cultured, female Charlestonian of old family or a young, urban, working-class, male Hispanic from New York City. Some people have more than one such dialect personality; national politicians, for example, may use a Washingtonian government dialect when they are doing their job and a â€Å"down-home† dialect when they are interacting with their voters.Ultimately, each of us has a unique, personal way of using language, an idiolect, which identifies us for those who know us. A register is the variety of a language used for a particular purpose: sermon language (which may have a distinctive rhythm and sentence melody and include words like brethren and beloved), restaurant-menu language (which is full of â€Å"tasty adjectives† like garden-fresh and succulent), telephone-conversation language (in which the speech of the secondary participant is full of uh-huh, I see, yeah, and language and the english language 11 h), postcard language (in which the subjects of sentences are frequently omitted: â€Å"Having a wonderful time. Wish you were here. †), and e-mail and instant-messaging language with abbreviations like BTDT (been there, done that), CUL8ER (see you later), CYO (see you online), and LOL (laughing out loud). Everyone uses several registers, and the more varied the circumstances under which we talk and write, the more registers we use. The dialects we speak help to define who we are. They tell those who hear us where we come from, our social or ethnic identification, and other such intimate facts about us.The registers we use reflect the circumstances in which we are communicating. They indicate where we are speaking or writing, to whom, via what medium, about what subject, and for what purpose. Dialects and registers provide options—alternative ways of using language. And those options confront us with the question of w hat is the right or best alternative. Correctness and Acceptability The concept of an absolute and unwavering, presumably God-given standard of linguistic correctness (sometimes confused with â€Å"purity†) is widespread, even among the educated.Those who subscribe to this notion become greatly exercised over such matters as split infinitives, the â€Å"incorrect† position of only, and prepositions at the ends of sentences. All these supposed â€Å"errors† have been committed time and again by eminent writers and speakers, so that one wonders how those who condemn them know that they are bad. Robert Lowth, who wrote one of the most influential English grammars of the eighteenth century (A Short Introduction to English Grammar, 1762), was praised by one of his admirers for showing â€Å"the grammatic inaccuracies that have escaped the pens of our most distinguished writers. One would suppose that the language of â€Å"our most distinguished writers† would be good usage. But Lowth and his followers knew, or thought they knew, better; and their attitude survives to this day. This is not, of course, to deny that there are standards of usage, but only to suggest that standards must be based on the usage of speakers and writers of generally acknowledged excellence—quite a different thing from a subservience to the mandates of badly informed â€Å"authorities† who are guided by their own prejudices rather than by a study of the actual usage of educated and accomplished speakers and writers.To talk about â€Å"correctness† in language implies that there is some abstract, absolute standard by which words and grammar can be judged; something is either â€Å"correct† or â€Å"incorrect†Ã¢â‚¬â€and that’s all there is to that. But the facts of language are not so clean-cut. Instead, many students of usage today prefer to talk about acceptability, that is, the degree to which users of a language will ju dge an expression as OK or will let its use pass without noticing anything out of the ordinary. An acceptable expression is one that people do not object to, indeed do not even notice unless it is called to their attention.Acceptability is not absolute, but is a matter of degree; one expression may be more or less acceptable than another. â€Å"If I were in your shoes† may be judged more acceptable than â€Å"If I was in your shoes,† but both are considerably more acceptable than â€Å"If we was in your shoes. † Moreover, acceptability is not abstract, but is related to some group of people whose response it reflects. Thus most 12 chapter 1 Americans pronounce the past-tense verb ate like eight and regard any other pronunciation as unacceptable. Many Britons, on the other hand, pronounce it as â€Å"ett† and find the American preference less acceptable.Acceptability is part of the convention of language use; in talking about it, we must always keep in min d â€Å"How acceptable? † and â€Å"To whom? † LANGUAGE AS HUMAN As noted at the beginning of this chapter, language is a specifically human activity. That statement, however, raises several questions. When and how did human beings acquire language? To what extent is language innate, and to what extent is it learned? How does human language differ from the communication systems of other creatures? We will look briefly at each of these questions.Theories of the Origin of Language The ultimate origin of language is a matter of speculation since we have no real information about it. The earliest languages for which we have records are already in a high stage of development, and the same is true of languages spoken by technologically primitive peoples. The problem of how language began has tantalized philosophical minds, and many theories have been advanced, to which waggish scholars have given such fanciful names as the pooh-pooh theory, the bow-wow theory, the ding-dong theory, and the yo-he-ho theory.The nicknames indicate how seriously the theories need be taken: they are based, respectively, on the notions that language was in the beginning ejaculatory, or echoic (onomatopoeic), or characterized by a mystic appropriateness of sound to sense in contrast to being merely imitative, or made up of grunts and groans emitted in the course of group actions. According to one theory, the early prelanguage of human beings was a mixture of gestures and sounds in which the gestures carried most of the meaning and the sounds were used chiefly to â€Å"punctuate† or amplify the gestures—just the reverse of our use of speech and hand signals.Eventually human physiology and behavior changed in several related ways. The human brain, which had been expanding in size, lateralized—that is, each half came to specialize in certain activities, and language ability was localized in the left hemisphere of most persons. As a consequence, â€Å"handed ness† developed (right-handedness for those with left-hemisphere dominance), and there was greater manual specialization. As people had more things to do with their hands, they could use them less for communication and had to rely more on sounds.Therefore, increasingly complex forms of oral signals developed, and language as we know it evolved. The fact that we human beings alone have vocal language but share with our closest animal kin (the apes) an ability to learn complex gesture systems suggests that manual signs may have preceded language as a form of communication. We cannot know how language really began; we can be sure only of its immense antiquity. However human beings started to talk, they did so long ago, and it was not until much later that they devised a system of making marks on wood, stone, or clay to represent what they said.Compared with language, writing is a newfangled invention, although certainly not less brilliant for being so. language and the english la nguage 13 Innate Language Ability The acquisition of language would seem to be an arduous task. But it is a task that children all over the world seem not to mind in the least. Moreover, children in daily contact with a language other than their â€Å"home† language—that of their parents—readily learn to speak the other language with a native accent. After childhood, however, perhaps in the teen years, most people find it difficult to learn a new language.Young children seem to be genetically equipped with an ability to acquire language. But after a while, that automatic ability atrophies, and learning a new language becomes a chore. To be sure, children of five or so have not acquired all of the words or grammatical constructions they will need as they grow up. But they have mastered the basics of the language they will speak for the rest of their lives. The immensity of that accomplishment can be appreciated by anyone who has learned a second language as an ad ult.It is clear that, although every particular language has to be learned, the ability to acquire and use language is a part of our genetic inheritance and operates most efficiently in our younger years. Do Birds and Beasts Really Talk? Some animals are physically just about as well equipped as humans to produce speech sounds, and some—certain birds, for instance—have in fact been taught to do so. But no other species makes use of a system of sounds even remotely resembling ours. Human language and animal communication are fundamentally different.In the second half of the twentieth century, a trio of chimpanzees—Sarah, Lana, and Washoe—greatly modified our ideas about the linguistic abilities of our closest relatives in the animal kingdom. After several efforts to teach chimps to talk had ended in almost total failure, it was generally concluded that apes lack the cognitive ability to learn language. Some psychologists reasoned, however, that the main pr oblem might be a simple anatomical limitation: human vocal organs are so different from the corresponding ones in apes that the animals cannot produce the sounds of human speech.If they have the mental, but not the physical, ability to talk, then they should be able to learn a language using a medium other than sound. Sarah was taught to communicate by arranging plastic tokens of arbitrary color and shape. Each of the tokens, which were metal-backed and placed on a magnetized board, represented a word in the system, and groups of tokens corresponded to sentences. Sarah learned over a hundred tokens and could manage sentences of the complexity of â€Å"Sarah take banana if-then Mary no give chocolate Sarah† (that is, ‘If Sarah takes a banana, Mary won’t give Sarah any chocolate’).Lana also used word symbols, but hers were on a typewriter connected to a computer. She communicated with people, and they with her via the computer. Typed-out messages appeared on a screen and had to conform exactly to the rules of â€Å"word† order of the system Lana had been taught, if she was to get what she asked for (food, drink, companionship, and the like). Washoe, in the most interesting of these efforts to teach animals a language, was schooled in a gesture language used by the deaf, American Sign Language. 14 chapter 1Her remarkable success in learning to communicate with this quite natural and adaptable system has resulted in its being taught to a number of other chimpanzees and gorillas. The apes learn signs, use them appropriately, combine them meaningfully, and when occasion requires even invent new signs or combinations. For example, one of the apes made up the terms â€Å"candydrink† and â€Å"drinkfruit† to talk about watermelons. The linguistic accomplishment of these apes is remarkable; nevertheless, it is a far cry from the fullness of a human language.The number of signs or tokens the ape learns, the complexity of th e syntax with which those signs are combined, and the breadth of ideas that they represent are all far more restricted than in any human language. Moreover, human linguistic systems have been fundamentally shaped by the fact that they are expressed in sound. Vocalness of language is no mere incidental characteristic but rather is central to the nature of language. We must still say that only human beings have language in the full sense of that term. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATIONThe purpose of language is to communicate, whether with others by